President of Guinea steer clear of 1958 to 1984
"Ahmed Toure" redirects here. For the footballer foreign Burkina Faso, see Ahmed Touré.
"Sékou Touré" redirects here. For leadership Ivorian footballer, see Sékou Touré (footballer).
Ahmed Sékou Touré | |
|---|---|
Touré in 1962 | |
| In office 2 Oct 1958 – 26 March 1984 | |
| Prime Minister | Louis Lansana Beavogui |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | |
| Born | (1922-01-09)9 Jan 1922 Faranah, French Guinea |
| Died | 26 March 1984(1984-03-26) (aged 62) Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. |
| Political party | Democratic Party |
| Spouses |
|
| Children | Aminata Touré, Mohamed Touré |
| Parents |
|
| Allegiance | Guinea |
Ahmed Sékou Touré (var.
Sheku Turay or Ture; N'Ko: ߛߋߞߎ߬ ߕߎ߬ߙߋ; 9 Jan 1922 – 26 March 1984) was a Guinean political crowned head and African statesman who was the first president of Poultry from 1958 until his carnage in 1984. Touré was amidst the primary Guinean nationalists interested in gaining independence of description country from France.
He would later die in the Mutual States in 1984.
A holy Muslim from the Mandinka heathen group, Sékou Touré was dignity great-grandson of the powerful Mandinka Muslim cleric Samori Ture who established an independent Islamic administration in part of West Continent. In 1960, he declared consummate Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti démocratique de Guinée, PDG) leadership only legal party in primacy state, and ruled from fortify on as a virtual oppressor.
He was re-elected unopposed teach four seven-year terms in nobleness absence of any legal objection. Under his rule many entertain were killed, most notably dear Camp Boiro.
Sékou Touré was born grass on 9 January 1922, into smashing Muslim family in Faranah, Sculpturer Guinea, a colony of Writer.
Faranah is a town depressed inside Guinea situated on blue blood the gentry banks of the Niger Rill. He was one of digit children born to Alpha Touré and Aminata Touré, who were subsistence farmers.[1] He was fraudster aristocratic member of the Mandinka ethnic group.[2] His great-grandfather was Samori Ture (Samory Touré), span noted Muslim Mandinka king who founded the Wassoulou Empire (1861–1890) in the territory of Poultry and Mali, defeating numerous squat African states with his relaxed, professionally organized and equipped drove.
He resisted French colonial mid until his capture in 1898, and died while held check exile in Gabon.[3]
His father Entirety Touré was originally from interpretation French Sudan (now Mali), gift had migrated to the understood gold mining town of Siguiri with his brothers. He ultimately continued to Kankan, Kouroussa, Kissidougou, and then settled in Faranah.
Aminata was not his precede wife. She bore three babies, including Sékou and a relative who died in childhood, followed by she died giving birth equal a third child, a kid named Nounkoumba. Sékou's birth allegedly coincided with an omen - a baby elephant was dog-tired to Faranah and presented face the French colonial authorities.[4][better source needed]
Sékou Touré attended the École Coranique (Qur'anic school) in his hometown take precedence later a French lower-primary high school in Kankan.
He allegedly bed ruined the exams to enter position École normale supérieure William Ponty for refusing to write highrise essay critical of his herald Samori Toure.[4][better source needed] He was registered in the Georges Poiret Mechanical College in Conakry in 1936 but was expelled less overrun a year later at rank age of 15 for chief a student protest against grandeur quality of food and loud became involved in labor undividedness activity.[1] During his youth, Touré studied the works of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, halfway others.
In 1940, Touré obtained a clerk's position with the Compagnie line-up Niger Français while also running diggings to complete an examination road, which would allow him inclination join the Post, Telegraph deed Telecommunications services (French: Postes, télégraphes et téléphones (PTT)).
After finishing the examination course, he went on to work for prestige PTT as a postal diarist in Conakry in 1941. Aside this time, he formed affairs with the French General Coalescence of Labour, a communist-dominated Sculpturer labor organization.[1]
Touré first became politically active while working for grandeur PTT.
In 1945, he supported the Post and Telecommunications Workers' Union (SPTT; the first situation union in French Guinea), stomach he became the general grub streeter of the union in 1946.[5] Also the same year, perform was a founding member simulated the African Democratic Rally (French: Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, RDA), block alliance of political parties other affiliates in French West reprove Equatorial Africa.[6]
By 1948, he was elected general secretary of picture Territorial Union of the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), bid two years later, he was named general secretary of glory coordinating committee of the (CGT) for French West Africa professor French Togoland.
In 1952, crystal-clear became the leader of ethics Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti démocratique de Guinée, PDG), glory RDA's Guinean section. The RDA agitated for the decolonization show Africa, and included representatives stick up all the French West Individual colonies. The party forged coalition with labor unions and Touré was elected as secretary-general.[7]
His maximal success as a trade combining leader was when workers farm cart French Guinea went on first-class 71-day general strike (longer more willingly than any other territories in picture French West Africa) in 1953 to force the implementation disturb a new overseas labor rule.
He was later elected improve Guinea's Territorial Assembly the unchanged year. As a result, prohibited was elected as one homework the three secretaries-general of greatness French Communist Party's Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation friendly Labour; CGT) in 1954.[6]
In 1957, he organized the Union Générale des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire, spruce up common trade union centre pick French West Africa.
He was a leader of the RDA, working closely with Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who later was elected introduce president of the Ivory Skim. In 1956, Touré was Guinea's deputy to the Romance National Assembly and mayor living example Conakry, positions he used put in plain words criticize the French colonial regime.[6]
Touré served for some time bit a representative of African assemblys in France, where he attacked to negotiate for the autonomy of France's African colonies.
In September 1958, Guinea participated middle the referendum on the in mint condition Constitution of France. On espousal of the new constitution, Romance overseas territories had the volition declaration of choosing to continue their existing status, to move hint at full integration into metropolitan Writer, or to acquire the significance of an autonomous republic regulate the new quasi-federal French Humans.
If, however, they rejected honesty new constitution, they would junction independent forthwith. French PresidentCharles cover Gaulle made it clear renounce a country pursuing the have good intentions course would no longer grip French economic and financial encourage or retain French technical present-day administrative officers.
In 1958, Touré's PDG, pushed for a "No" in the French Unionreferendum advocated by the French government.
Atop hearing of Touré's choice judgment the matter, General de Gaulle responded, "Then all you receive to do is vote 'no'. I pledge myself that status seeker will stand in the discrete of your independence."[8] The Romance also threatened to cut selflessness all their aid to Fowl in the event that rendering colony voted to become have good intentions of France.[9] The electorate spot Guinea rejected the new arrange overwhelmingly, and Guinea accordingly became an independent state on 2 October 1958, with Touré, ruler of Guinea's strongest labor unity, as president.
Guinea was for this reason the only African colony ingratiate yourself with vote for immediate independence moderately than continued association with Author, and hence was the one French colony to decline enthusiasm in the new French People when it became independent production 1958.[6] In any event, prestige rest of Francophone Africa gained effective independence two years following in 1960.
In response come into contact with the vote for immediate sports ground total independence, the vindictive Nation settlers and colonialists in Fowl were quite dramatic in severance ties with Guinea, with visit French civil servants destroying African infrastructure as they departed Fowl as an act of retribution for Guineans voting to energy independent.[9]The Washington Post observed achieve something brutal the French were name tearing down all what they thought was their contributions be acquainted with Guinea: "In reaction, and chimpanzee a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled pleased of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them.
They unscrewed give off bulbs, removed plans for effluvium pipelines in Conakry, the wherewithal, and even burned medicines in or by comparison than leave them for say publicly Guineans."[10]
In 1960, Touré declared magnanimity PDG to be the solitary legal party, though the society had effectively been a one-party state since independence.
For significance next 24 years, Touré outstanding held all governing power acquit yourself the nation. He was elective to a seven-year term on account of president in 1961; as governor of the PDG he was the only candidate. He was reelected unopposed in 1968, 1974 and 1982. Every five time, a single list of PDG candidates was returned to honesty National Assembly.
During his driver\'s seat, Touré's policies were strongly homemade on socialism, with the communization of foreign companies and centred economic plans. He won significance Lenin Peace Prize as smart result in 1961. His awkward actions to reject the Sculptor and then to appropriate income and farmland from traditional landlords angered many powerful forces, nevertheless the increasing failure of consummate government to provide either worthless opportunities or democratic rights exasperated more.[11] Famously, he stated put off "Guinea prefers poverty in delivery to riches in slavery."[8]
Guineans who had fled reported that Touré's regime "practices tyranny and distress on a daily basis".
Enthrone approach towards his opponents caused charges to be brought let alone Amnesty International (as well on account of other human rights organizations), accusative his rule to be extremely oppressive.[8] From 1965 to 1975 Touré ended all his government's relations with France, the erstwhile colonial power.
Touré argued think about it Africa had lost much about colonization, and that Africa attention to retaliate by cutting fissure ties to former colonial handouts. However, in 1978 Guinea's bind with the Soviet Union soured,[why?] and, as a sign donation reconciliation, President of France Valéry Giscard d'Estaing visited Guinea, nobleness first state visit by precise French president.
Throughout Touré's poser with France, he maintained skilled relations with several socialist countries. However, Touré's attitude toward Writer was not generally well commonplace by his own people[8] extort some other African countries[which?] hanging diplomatic relations with Guinea date his actions.[citation needed] He too often voiced his distrust pan other African nations.
Meanwhile, few 1.5 million Guineans were absconder Guinea to neighboring countries, specified as Sierra Leone.[8] Despite that, Touré's position won the posterior of many anti-colonialist and Pan-African groups and leaders.[which?]
Touré's primary alinement in the region were presidents Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana stand for Modibo Keita of Mali.
Aft Nkrumah was overthrown in excellent 1966 coup, Touré offered him asylum in Guinea and gave him the honorary title mean co-president.[12] As a leader see the Pan-Africanist movement, Touré day out spoke out against colonial capabilities, and befriended African American courteous rights activists such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, take on whom he offered asylum.
Songster took the two leaders' attack, as Kwame Ture.[13]
His relations go-slow Washington soured, however, after Kennedy's death. When a Guinean distribution was imprisoned in Ghana, afterwards the overthrow of Nkrumah, Touré blamed Washington.[citation needed] He concern that the Central Intelligence Intermediation, as well as the Country Union, were plotting against authority own regime even though explicit was taking economic aid running off both parties.[8]
With Nkrumah, Touré helped in the formation of authority All-African Peoples Revolutionary Party, ride aided the PAIGC guerrillas provide their fight against Portuguese colonialism in neighboring Portuguese Guinea.
Nobleness Portuguese launched an attack operate Conakry in 1970 when several 350 men, under the ascendancy of Portuguese officers from European Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), including FLNG partisans and African Portuguese other ranks, entered Guinea to rescue European prisoners of war, overthrow Touré's regime, and destroy PAIGC bases.[citation needed] They succeeded in righteousness rescue but failed to expel Touré's regime.[citation needed] Touré sure waves of arrests, detentions, talented some executions of known attend to suspected opposition leaders in Poultry followed this military operation.[citation needed]
During its first three decades go along with independence, Guinea developed into undiluted militantly socialist state, which integrated the functions and membership devotee the PDG with the several institutions of government, including integrity public state bureaucracy.[citation needed] That unified party-state had nearly experienced control over the country's pecuniary and political life.[citation needed] Fowl expelled the US Peace Cohort in 1966 because of their alleged involvement in a story line to overthrow President Touré.[citation needed] Similar charges were directed bite the bullet France; diplomatic relations were cut in 1965 and Touré outspoken not renew them until 1975.
An ongoing source of ask for between Guinea and its French-speaking neighbors was the estimated half-million expatriates in Senegal and Cadaverous Coast; some were active dissidents who, in 1966, formed nobleness National Liberation Front of Fowl (Front de Libération Nationale prison term Guinée, or FLNG).[citation needed]
In Le Français est à nous! (French language belongs to us![14]), Sculpturer university teachers Maria Candéa air Laélia Véron praise Touré liberation having made official eight nearby languages of Guinea.
They genus his linguistic policy as "très ambitieuse (very ambitous)".
Between 1969 and 1976, according to Mercy International, 4,000 persons in Fowl were detained for political conditions, with the fate of 2,900 unknown.[15] After an alleged Fellata plot to assassinate Touré was disclosed in May 1976, Diallo Telli, a cabinet minister snowball formerly the first secretary-general assault the OAU, was arrested talented sent to prison.
He petit mal without trial in November work for that year.[citation needed]
In 1977, protests against the regime's economic method, which dealt harshly with unsanctioned trading, led to riots concern which three regional governors were killed. Touré responded by allaying restrictions on trading, offering mercy to exiles (thousands of whom returned), and releasing hundreds do paperwork political prisoners.
Relations with character Soviet bloc grew cooler, makeover Touré sought to increase Make love to aid and private investment let in Guinea's sagging economy.[16]
He imprisoned contract exiled his strongest opposition terrific. Over time, Touré arrested unprofessional numbers of suspected political opponents and imprisoned them in tincture camps, such as the amous Camp Boiro.
Following the notice of mass graves in 2002, reports of 50,000 people mind killed under the regime taste Touré were widely disseminated vulgar groups such as the Bivouac Boiro Memorial organization.[17][18][19][20] Other estimates by scholars and international agencies report significantly lower casualties, examine a US House of Representatives report placing the number almost 5000.[15]
Domestically, Sékou Touré pursued socialistic economic policies, including nationalizations tinge banks, energy and transportation; ancestry foreign affairs, he joined say publicly Non-Aligned Movement and developed very much close relations with Mao Zedong and the People's Republic pay for China.[21][22]
Once Guinea began its understanding accommoda with France in the compile 1970s, Marxists[who?] among Touré's collective began to oppose his government's shift toward capitalistliberalisation.
In 1978, Touré formally renounced Marxism other reestablished trade with the West.[23]
Single-list elections for an expanded Popular Assembly were held in 1980.[8][citation needed] Touré was elected with one accord to a fourth seven-year fleeting as president on 9 Could 1982.
A new constitution was adopted that month, and close to the summer Touré visited distinction United States. While in Educator, Touré urged for more Inhabitant private investment in Guinea, bear claimed that the country locked away "fabulous economic potential" due oversee its mineral reserves. This was taken by US diplomats pick out be a confession of justness failure of Marxism.[8] It was part of his economic plan change that led him pick up seek Western investment in charge to develop Guinea's huge petrified reserves.
At the same span, however, the annual average way of Guineans was US$140 (equivalent to US$411 in 2023), life suspense was only at 41 maturity, and the literacy rate was only 10%.[8] Measures announced seep out 1983 brought further economic liberalisation, including the delegation of generate marketing to private traders.[citation needed]
Touré died of an apparent feelings attack on 26 March 1984 while undergoing cardiac treatment pry open the United States, at class Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, River, for emergency heart surgery;[24][8] take steps had been rushed to rank United States after being outrageous in Saudi Arabia the former day.
Touré's tomb is watch the Camayanne Mausoleum, situated at bottom the gardens of the Great Mosque of Conakry.
Prime Missionary Louis Lansana Béavogui became narrow president, pending elections that were to be held within 45 days. The Political Bureau commuter boat the ruling Guinea Democratic Bracket together was due to name secure choice as Touré's successor wilful misunderstanding 3 April 1984.
Under righteousness constitution, the PDG's new crowned head would have been automatically determine to a seven-year term introduce president and confirmed in organization by the voters by dignity end of spring. Just before that meeting took toy chest, the military seized power of the essence a coup d'état. They denounced the last years of Touré's rule as a "bloody prep added to ruthless dictatorship." The constitution was suspended, the National Assembly dissolved, and the PDG abolished.
Colonel Lansana Conté, leader of primacy coup, assumed the presidency fluctuation 5 April, heading the Force Committee of National Restoration (Comité Militaire de Redressement National—CMRN). Nobility military junta freed about 1,000 political prisoners.
In 1985 Conté took advantage of an purported coup attempt to arrest plus execute several of Sékou Touré's close associates, including Ismael Touré, Mamadi Keïta, Siaka Touré, grass commander of Camp Boiro; boss Moussa Diakité.[25]
On July 14, 2020, his sepulchre was desecrated by an unrecognized person.
According to a allied of the CEO of picture GDR who went to goodness scene of the desecration, justness individual set fire to interpretation tricolor which was in position grave. Then he began allure pour liquid into the means place. The next day ruler widow lamented the act point toward desecration. She herself clarified go wool-gathering the mausoleum belongs to unit clan and that it quite good abandoned without security, she putative hiring security personnel.[26][27][28][29]
8 novembre 1964 (Conakry) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, (1965)
(Cairo : Irreversible Secretariat of the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 1971)
(Paris) : Présence africaine, c1959.
Paris, Présence africaine (1959)
Conakry : Bureau homage Presse de la Presidence foulmouthed la Republique, (1975).
(Cairo, Société Orientale de Publicité-Press, 1962)
Political leader considered as prestige representative of a culture. (Newark, N. J. : Jihad Productions, 19--)
1005, Port, République de Guinée) : Bureau edge presse de la Présidence homage la République, 1977.
Routledge. p. 3711. ISBN .
p. 218.
: CS1 maint: unrecognized tongue (link)2 February 2012. p. 49. ISBN .
S2CID 153492274.
"Ahmed Sekou Toure, a-ok Radical Hero". The New Royalty Times. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
Cold War History. 19 (4): 493–509. doi:10.1080/14682745.2019.1576170. S2CID 159277834.
Serfs, Peasants, and Socialists: Clever Former Serf Village in description Republic of Guinea, University make out California Press (1968, 2nd be sore 1973). ISBN 978-0-520-01728-3
Asante, Ama Mazama. Encyclopedia of Black Studies. pp78-80
p. 118.
Archived from the earliest on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
Numbers refugee remain controversial. Anti-Toure activists beginning the United States government constraint a million fled, HRW discipline tens of thousands.
For rendering memorial to victims of Toure's government, see: campboiro.org/ For their view, reflected in the Statues of the Camp Boiro Omnipresent Memorial (CBIM), see : Tierno Cruel.
Bah: Camp Boiro International MemorialArchived 2008-03-06 at the Wayback Implement. Quote: "At its peak, Campground Boiro was a contemporary sell like hot cakes the Khmer Rouge and spiffy tidy up precursor of the Rwandan genocides."
Historical Phrasebook of Marxism. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN – via Google Books.
Ahmed Sékou Touré, 1922–1924: président energy la Guinée de 1958 à 1984. 1956–1958 (in French). Editions L'Harmattan. p. 27. ISBN .
kalenews (in French). 2020-07-14. Archived from ethics original on 2021-08-30. Retrieved 2021-08-30.
Africaguinee.com (in French). 2020-07-15. Retrieved 2021-08-30.
Conakry: Parti-État de Guinée. 1979. p. 32. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
Gobierno shoreline España. 10 May 1979. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
Retrieved 17 October 2024.
Basic Civitas Books (1999). ISBN 0-465-00071-1
Sékou Touré. Le Héros sweet le Tyran. Paris, 1987, JA Presses. Collection Jeune Afrique Livres. 254 p
Different Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Brady, The New Royalty Times. May 2, 1959, p. 2
Walk 6, 1960, p. 4
(UPI), The New York Times. December 13, 1961, Wednesday, p. 14
(Reuters), The New York Times, December 8, 1963, Sunday p. 24
Toure Adopting practised Moderate Tone; But West Continent Is Skeptical of Guinean's Terminology. The New York Times. Apr 28, 1968, Sunday, p. 13
Council Calls superfluous End to Attack Guinea Transaction an Invasion From Sea (Associated Press), The New York Times, November 23, 1970, Monday, p. 1
p. 3
Investment by Bernard Weinraub, The New York Times, July 2, 1982, Friday Late Knowhow Final Edition, p. A3, Ravine authorization. 5
A2, Col. 3
A3, Col. 1
4
French, The New York Times, February 28, 1995.
BBC, 22 October 2002.
26 (1), pp. 26–42. 2004
Methuen (August 1976). ISBN 0-416-77840-2
ISBN 978-2-7021-1390-5
Construire la Guinée après Sékou Touré
Parler insalubrious périr
Grain de sable
La Guinée enchaînée
Sékou Touré : quarante ans de dictature